The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the arrange Accipitriformes, [ 2 ] and is a kin of small to bombastic birds with powerfully hooked bills and varying morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-sized mammals, with a phone number feeding on carrion and a few feed on fruit. The Accipitridae have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found on all the global ‘s continents ( except Antarctica ) and a number of oceanic island groups. Some species are migratory. The family contains 255 species which are divided into 70 genus. many well-known birds such as hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures are included in this group. The osprey is normally placed in a discriminate family ( Pandionidae ), as is the secretary boo ( Sagittariidae ), and the New World vultures are besides normally now regarded as a separate family or rate. Karyotype datum indicate the accipitrids analysed are indeed a distinct monophyletic group.
Reading: Accipitridae – Wikipedia
Systematics and evolution [edit ]
The accipitrids have been variously divided into some five to ten subfamilies. Most share a identical similar morphology, but many of these groups contain taxa that are more aberrant. These are placed in their respective position more for lack of better evidence than anything else. The phylogenetic layout of the accipitrids has therefore always been a topic of dispute. The accipitrids are recognizable by a particular rearrangement of their chromosomes. apart from this, morphology and mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data give a confuse movie of these birds ‘ inter-relationships. The peddle, kites, eagles and Old World vultures as soon assigned in all likelihood do not form monophyletic groups. According to the molecular data, the Buteoninae are most probably poly- or paraphyletic, with the true eagles, the ocean eagles, and the buteonine clear the throat apparently representing clear-cut lineages. These appear to form a group with the Milvinae, Accipitrinae and Circinae, but the claim relationships between the lineages are not robustly solvable. The Perninae and possibly the Elaninae are older lineages, as are the Old World vultures. The latter are likely besides poly- or paraphyletic, with some aberrant species like the bearded and egyptian vultures standing apart from the naked-necked “ true ” vultures .
taxonomy [edit ]
Below is the taxonomy after the evolution from the studies of Mindell et aluminum. ( 2018 ), [ 8 ] Starikov & Wink ( 2020 ), [ 9 ] and Sangster et al. ( 2021 ). [ 10 ] The family contains 255 species and is divided into 70 genus. [ 11 ]
- Subfamily Elaninae – elanine kites (might be a separate but related family)[9]
- Genus Gampsonyx
- Genus Chelictinia
- Genus Elanus
- Subfamily Gypaetinae – gypaetine vultures and harrier-hawks
- Genus Polyboroides
- Genus Gypohierax
- Genus Neophron
- Genus Gypaetus
- Subfamily Perninae – honey-buzzards (including pernine kites, cuckoo-hawks, bazas and Madagascar serpent eagle)
- Genus Eutriorchis
- Genus Leptodon
- Genus Chondrohierax
- Genus Elanoides
- Genus Pernis
- Genus Aviceda
- Genus Hamirostra
- Genus Lophoictinia
- Genus Henicopernis
- Subfamily Circaetinae – serpent eagles
- Genus Spilornis
- Genus Pithecophaga
- Genus Terathopius
- Genus Circaetus
- Genus Dryotriorchis
- Subfamily Aegypiinae – Old World vultures
- Genus Sarcogyps
- Genus Trigonoceps
- Genus Torgos
- Genus Aegypius
- Genus Necrosyrtes
- Genus Gyps
- Subfamily Harpiinae – forest eagles
- Genus Macheiramphus
- Genus Harpyopsis
- Genus Morphnus
- Genus Harpia
- Subfamily Aquilinae – booted eagles
- Genus Stephanoaetus
- Genus Nisaetus
- Genus Spizaetus
- Genus Lophotriorchis
- Genus Polemaetus
- Genus Lophaetus
- Genus Ictinaetus
- Genus Clanga
- Genus Hieraaetus
- Genus Aquila (paraphyletic to Hieraaetus)[8]
- Subfamily Lophospizinae – crested goshawk
- Genus Lophospiza
- Subfamily Harpaginae – harpagine hawks and kites
- Genus Microspizias
- Genus Kaupifalco
- Genus Harpagus
- Subfamily Melieraxinae – melieraxine hawks
- Genus Micronisus
- Genus Melierax
- Genus Urotriorchis
- Subfamily Accipitrinae – accipitrine hawks[8]
- Genus Erythrotriorchis
- Genus Megatriorchis
- Genus Accipiter
- Subfamily Circinae
- Genus Circus
- Subfamily Buteoninae – buteonine hawks (including milvine kites and sea-eagles)[8]
- Tribe Milvini
- Genus Milvus
- Genus Haliastur
- Genus Haliaeetus
- Tribe Buteonini
- Genus Butastur
- Genus Ictinia
- Genus Busarellus
- Genus Rostrhamus
- Genus Helicolestes
- Genus Geranospiza
- Genus Cryptoleucopteryx
- Genus Buteogallus
- Genus Morphnarchus
- Genus Rupornis
- Genus Parabuteo
- Genus Geranoaetus
- Genus Pseudastur
- Genus Leucopternis
- Genus †Bermuteo
- Genus Buteo
- Tribe Milvini
dodo phonograph record [edit ]
Neophrontops americanus fossil fossil Neogyps errans fossil fossil As with most other birds of raven, the dodo record of this group is fairly accomplished from the latter Eocene onwards ( c.35 mya ), with modern genus being well documented since the early Oligocene, or around 30 mya .
- Milvoides (Late Eocene of England)
- Aquilavus (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene – Early Miocene of France)
- Palaeocircus (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of France)
- Aviraptor (Early Oligocene of Poland)[12]
- Palaeastur (Agate Fossil Beds, Early Miocene of Sioux County, US)
- Pengana (Early Miocene of Riversleigh, Australia)
- Promilio (Agate Fossil Beds Early Miocene of Sioux County, US)
- Proictinia (Early – Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of C and SE US)
- Neophrontops (Early/Middle Miocene – Late Pleistocene) – formerly in Neophron
- Mioaegypius (Xiacaowan Middle Miocene of Sihong, China)
- Apatosagittarius (Late Miocene of Nebraska, US)
- Gansugyps (Liushu Late Miocene of China)
- Palaeoborus (Miocene)
- Qiluornis (Miocene of Shandong, China)
- Garganoaetus (Early Pliocene of Gargano Peninsula, Italy)
- Amplibuteo (Late Pliocene of Peru – Late Pleistocene of southern North America and Cuba) – may belong to extant genus Harpyhaliaetus
- Neogyps
- Palaeohierax – includes “Aquila” gervaisii
Accipitrids are known since early Eocene times, or about from 50 mya onwards, but these early remains are excessively fragmental and/or basal to by rights assign a stead in the evolution. Likewise, molecular methods are of limited value in determining evolutionary relationships of and within the accipitrids. The group may have originated on either side of the Atlantic, which during that time was lone 60–80 % its stage width. As evidenced by fossils like Pengana, some 25 mya, accipitrids in all likelihood quickly acquired a ball-shaped distribution, initially credibly extending evening to Antarctica .
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Huerfano Early Eocene of Huerfano County, US)[13]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Borgloon Early Oligocene of Hoogbutsel, Belgium)[14]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)[15]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. MPEF-PV-2523 (Puerto Madryn Late Miocene of Estancia La Pastosa, Argentina)
- “Aquila” danana (Snake Creek Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Loup Fork, US) – formerly also Geranoaetus or Buteo
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Early/Middle Pliocene of Kern County, US) – Parabuteo?[16]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Ibiza, Mediterranean) – Buteo?
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Egypt)
Specimen AMNH FR 2941, a bequeath coracoid from the Late Eocene Irdin Manha Formation of Chimney Butte ( Inner Mongolia ), was initially assessed as a radical mid-sized buteonine ; it is nowadays considered to be more probable to belong in the Gruiformes genus Eogrus. [ 19 ] The early Oligocene genus Cruschedula was once thought to belong to Spheniscidae, however follow-up of the type specimen in 1943 resulted in the genus being placed in Accipitridae. [ 20 ] Further examen in 1980 resulted in placement as Aves incertae sedis .
morphology [edit ]
portrayal of a subadult bald eagle, showing its powerfully hooked peck and the cere covering the base of the beak. The Accipitridae are a diverse family with a great deal of variation in size and shape. They range in size from the bantam drop kite ( Gampsonyx swainsonii ) and little sparrowhawk ( Accipiter minullus ), both of which are 23 cm ( 9 in ) in duration and weigh about 85 g ( 3 oz ), to the cinereous vulture ( Aegypius monachus ), which measures up to 120 curium ( 47 in ) and weighs up to 14 kg ( 31 pound ). Wingspan can vary from 39 centimeter ( 15 in ) in the little sparrowhawk to more than 300 curium ( 120 in ) in the cinereous and himalayan vultures ( Gyps himalayensis ). In these extreme species, wing chord length can range from 113 to 890 millimeter ( 4.4 to 35.0 in ) and culmen length from 11 to 88 millimeter ( 0.43 to 3.46 in ). Until the fourteenth century, even these huge vultures were surpassed by the extinct Haast ‘s eagle ( Hieraaetus moorei ) of New Zealand, which is estimated to have measured up to 140 curium ( 55 in ) and to have weighed 15 to 16.5 kg ( 33 to 36 pound ) in the largest females. [ 23 ] In terms of torso multitude, the Accipitridae are the most diverse kin of birds and may besides be in terms of some aspects of linear size diversity, although lag behind the true parrots and pheasant family in length diversity. Most accipitrids expose sexual dimorphism in size, although, unusually for birds, it is the females that are larger than the males. This sexual difference in size is most pronounce in active species that hunt birds, such as the Accipiter hawk, in which the size remainder averages 25–50 %. In a majority of species, such as renaissance man hunters and rodent -, reptile -, fish -, and insect -hunting specialists, the dimorphism is less, normally between a 5 % to 30 % size difference. In the carrion-eating Old World vultures and escargot eat kites, the remainder is largely non-existent, though sometimes the female may average slenderly heavier. The beak of accipitrids are strong and dependent ( sometimes very hook, as in the hook-billed kite or snail kite ). In some species, there is a notch or ‘tooth ‘ in the upper lower jaw. In all accipitrids, the base of the upper lower jaw is covered by a fleshy membrane called the cere, which is normally yellow in color. The tarsus of different species vary by diet ; those of bird-hunting species, such as sparrowhawks, are long and thin, whilst species that hunt large mammals have much slurred, stronger tarsus, and the tarsus of the snake-eagles have midst scales to protect from bites. The feather of the Accipitridae can be strike, but rarely use undimmed colours ; most birds use combinations of white, grey, buff, embrown and black. overall they tend to be paler below, which helps them seem less conspicuous when seen from below. There is rarely sexual dimorphism in feather, when it occurs the males are undimmed or the females resemble juveniles. In many species juveniles have a distinctly unlike feather. Some accipitrids mimic the feather patterns of other hawks and eagles. Resembling a less dangerous species may fool prey ; resembling a more dangerous species may reduce throng by early birds. respective species of accipitrid have crests used in sign, and even species without crests can raise the feathers of the pennant when alarmed or excited. In contrast most of the Old World vultures posse plain heads without feathers ; this is thought to prevent soiling on the feathers and help in thermoregulation. The senses of the Accipitridae are adapted to hunting ( or scavenging ), and in particular their vision is fabled. The sight of some hawks and eagles is up to 8 times better than that of humans. boastfully eyes with two foveae provide binocular sight and a “ peddle eye ” for movement and distance judge. In addition the Accipitridae have the largest pectens of any birds. The eyes are tube shape and can not move much in their sockets. In accession to excellent sight many species have excellent hearing, but unlike in owl sight is generally the principal feel used for hunting. hearing may be used to locate raven hidden in vegetation, but sight is hush used to catch the raven. Like most birds the Accipitridae generally have a poor sense of smell ; even the Old World vultures make no practice of the common sense, in contrast to the New World vultures in the family Cathartidae .
Diet and behavior [edit ]
The palm-nut vulture is an strange frugivorous accipitrid, but will besides consume fish, peculiarly dead pisces Accipitrids are predominantly predators and most species actively hunt for their raven. Prey is normally captured and killed in the knock-down talons of the bird of prey and then carried off to be tear apart with a aquiline bill for eating or feeding to nestlings. A majority of accipitrids are opportunist predators that will take any prey that they can kill. however, most have a preference for a certain type of prey, which in harriers and the numerous buteonine hawks ( including more than 30 species in the genus Buteo ) tends towards little mammals such as rodents. Among the raptors that chiefly favor small mammals, harriers broadly hunt by hovering over openings until they detect their raven and descend upon them. Due to the specificity of their hound dash, raven preferences, and habitat preferences, normally only one harrier species tends to be found per region. [ 29 ] Buteonine hawks normally watch for prey from a perch but most species will besides promptly hunt on the fly, including from a high gear soar. many buteonines are amongst the most generalize feeders, often feeding on any active small animal they find, and will broadly eat whatever diurnal rodent or lagomorph is most locally coarse. Some buteonines, however, are more speciate, such as certain species in the genus Buteogallus, which have evolved to specialize in feeding on crab. Larger Buteogallus, namely the lone eagles, and Geranoaetus are a lot larger than other buteonines and seem to have become avian apex predators of specific habitat niches—for case, savanna, cloud forest and páramo in South America —and are frankincense honorary “ eagles ”. [ 30 ] In Accipiter peddle ( the most species-rich accipitrid genus with closely 50 extant species ), prey is chiefly other birds. Accipiter second are in cosmopolitan forest- and thicket-dwelling species. Accipiter hawk normally still-hunt birds in dense vegetation, a dangerous hunt method that requires great agility. many smaller tropical species of Accipiter eat closely peer portions of insects and reptiles and amphibians as they do of birds while some of the larger species have become more generalize and may feed extensively on rodents and lagomorph, american samoa well as other versatile non-avian animals. Most accipitrids will supplement their diet with non-putrid carrion, but none are specialized for this a well as the 14–16 species of vultures, which have evolved identical big bodies ( which leave them equipped to fill their cultivate with carrion ) ; weaker, less specialize feet than other accipitrids ; large wingspans to spend long periods of time in flight over openings scanning for carcasses ; and building complex social demeanor in order to establish a mix species hierarchy at carrion. The New World vultures have attained several alike characteristics, but only through convergent development, and are apparently not immediately related to Old World vultures and other accipitrids. The bearded vulture ( Gypaetus barbatus ) is an aberrant cousin of the Old World vultures that has maintained potent feet that it uses to carry and drop large bones in order to crack them open to feed on bone marrow, their primary coil food, a proficiency they besides sometimes use for survive prey items, like tortoises. A few species may opportunistically feed on fruit. In one species, the palm-nut vulture ( Gypohierax angolensis ) ( possibly not close related to other “ vultures ” ), it may form more than half of the diet. [ 32 ] Most accipitrids will not eat establish material. Insects are taken entirely by around 12 species, in bang-up numbers by 44 extra species, and opportunistically by a capital many others. The diet of the honey-buzzards includes not only the adults and young of social insects such as wasp and bees, but the honey and comb from their nests. The escargot kite ( Rostrhamus sociabilis ), slender-billed kite ( Helicolestes hamatus ) and hook-billed kites ( Chondrohierax uncinatus ) are specialists in consuming snails, which normally constitute 50–95 % of their diet. other “ kites “ —a easy assemblance of smallish raptors, many of which are strong, buoyant fliers—are divided into two groups. One, entirely in the Old World, the milvine or “ large ” kites, are much quite common, very generalize and often decrepit predaceous feeders whereas the other kites, known as elanine or “ little ” kites and cosmopolitan in distribution, are supremely aerial, active hunters that broadly alternate their elementary food between insects and small mammals. One species allied with the latter kite group, the squash racket mortarboard ( Macheiramphus alcinus ), has come to specialize in hunting bats. [ 34 ]
“ Eagles “ are several raptors that are not necessarily closely relate, but can be broadly defined by large torso size ( larger than other raptors, excluding vultures ) and the take of typically larger prey, including mid-sized mammals and larger birds. The most divers group of eagles is the “ booted eagles “, a variable group of about 38 species defined by their feather covering their legs ( shared by lone a match of buteonine species ). Most accipitrids normally hunt prey smaller than themselves. however, many accipitrids of about all sizes have been recorded as capture and then flying with prey of equal slant or even slightly heavier than themselves in their talons, a feat that requires great potency. occasionally, an eagle or other bird of prey that kills prey well heavier than itself ( besides heavy for the bird of prey to carry and fly with ) will then have to leave prey at the site of the kill and late return repeatedly to feed or dismember and bring to a perch or nest objet d’art by piece. This has the advantage of providing a excess of food but has the disadvantage of potentially attracting scavengers or early predators which can steal the kill or even attack the feeding accipitrid. Using this method acting, accipitrids such as the golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ), wedge-tailed eagle ( Aquila audax ), warlike eagle ( Polemaetus bellicosus ) and crowned eagle ( Stephanoaetus coronatus ) have successfully hunted ungulates, such as deer and antelope, and other large animals ( kangaroo and electromagnetic unit in the wedge-tailed ) weighing more than 30 kilogram ( 66 pound ), 7–8 times their own mass. More typical prey for these mighty booted eagle species weigh between 0.5 and 5 kilogram ( 1.1 and 11.0 pound ). [ 35 ] The Haliaeetus eagles and the osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) chiefly prefer to prey on fish, which comprising more than 90 % of food for the osprey and some fish eagles. These large acciptrids may supplement their diets with aquatic animals other than pisces, particularly ocean eagles, which besides hunt large numbers of urine birds and are expert kleptoparasites. Reptiles and amphibians are hunted by about all kind of acciptrids when the opportunity arises and may be favored over other prey by some eagles, i.e. Spizaetus hawk-eagles and the “ eagles ” in Buteogallus, and several species of buteonine hawk found in the tropics. Bazas and forest hawk in the genus Accipiter may take reptiles from trees whilst other species may hunt them on the ground. Snakes are the chief prey of the snake-eagles ( Circaetus ) and serpent-eagles ( Spilornis and Dryotriorchis ). The mammal-hunting, huge and endanger Philippine eagle ( Pithecophaga jefferyi ) is most close related to the snake-eagles. Another fall aberrance of the snake-eagle ancestry is the bateleur ( Terathopius ecaudatus ), which has evolved unusually bright feather in adults, with a huge red cere, red feet, bright scandalmongering bill, and boldly contrasting grey-and-white markings over black feather. The bateleur feeds extensively on carrion and about any other feed opportunity that presents itself. [ 36 ] [ 37 ]
generative biota and populations [edit ]
In terms of their generative biology and socio-sexual behavior, accipitrids share many characteristics with early extant groups of birds that appear not be directly related, but all of which have evolved to become active predators of other warm-blooded creatures. Some of the characteristics shared with these other groups, including falcons, owl, skua and shrikes, are sexual dimorphism in size, with the female typically larger than the male ; extreme devotion of breeding pairs to each other or to a dedicated cuddle web site ; rigid and often ferocious territorial demeanor ; and, on think up, periodic contest amongst nestlings, including even siblicide in several species. Before the onset of the cuddle season, adult accipitrids frequently devote a majority of their clock to excluding other members of their own species and even of other species from their nest territories. In respective species, this occur by territorial display flights over the edge of their breeding ranges. In respective forest dwelling varieties, however, vocalizations are used to establish territories. Due to the density of the habitat, display flights are apparently impractical. While a unmarried devoted education copulate is considered distinctive, research has revealed that in varied accipitrids, multiple birds engaging in nesting demeanor is more normally than previously thought. Some harriers have evolved to become polygynous, with a single smaller male education with and then helping multiple females raise young. The most extreme know species of accipitrid in terms of sociality is the Harris ‘s mortarboard ( Parabuteo unicinctus ), which up to seven fully-grown birds may hunt, nest and grizzle hand in glove, with the extra birds typically being prior years ‘ offspring of the breed couple. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Unlike the other two larger groups of raptorial birds, the owl and most falcons, accipitrids typically build their own nest. Nest sites are typically in relatively secure places, such as the bend of a large tree or an ample cliff ledge, and can vary in elevation from the flat ground of prairies or steppe to near the peaks of the tallest mountains. Accipitrids will readily return to use a nest site repeatedly, which has resulted in respective of the largest bird ‘s nests known, as a individual nest may see decades of consumption, with more fabric added each education season. The single largest known tree nest known for any animal, belonging to a bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ), was found to be 6.1 thousand ( 20 foot ) deep and 2.9 meters ( 9.5 foot ) across, and to weigh 3 short-change tons ( 2.7 metric tons ). [ 41 ] Some species, specially eagles, will build multiple nests for use in alternating years. Although they normally use nests they build themselves, accipitrids sometimes use vacate nests build by other animals or pirate nests from early birds, typically other types of accipitrid. Compared to most other types of birds, the reach from egg-laying to independence in youthful birds is prolonged. In accipitrids, the breeding season ranges from about two to three months to roughly a class and a half, the latter in some of the larger tropical eagles. Species inhabiting temperate ranges as a rule have shorter breed seasons due to the shorter stretches of warm weather that facilitates cook capture of prey. normally from 2 to 6 eggs are laid in accipitrids, a relatively little clutch, and some species may lay only one testis. In about all accipitrids, eggs are laid at intervals rather than all at once and in some larger species the intervals can be respective days. This results in one of the hatchlings being larger and more promote in exploitation than its siblings. The benefits of siblicide, which is at least occasionally recorded in many species and about constantly occurs in some, such as tropical members of the booted eagle group, is that the smaller siblings are a kind of insurance policy that if the oldest, strongest nestling dies, one of the smaller siblings may take its plaza. In most species that have displayed siblicide, times of food plenty may result in two or more the nestlings being successfully raised to fledging. In most accipitrids, the smaller males typically obtain food both for the brood and brooding female and the nestlings. Males, however, occasionally take a chemise brood or even more sporadically brooding the nestlings, which allows the female to hunt. Most accipitrids feed their nestlings strips of kernel or whole prey items, but most vultures feed their nestlings via regurgitation. Fledgling often takes considerable feat for young birds and may take several weeks as opposed to days in many other types of birds. once freelancer of their parents, young accipitrids frequently most wander for considerable stretches of time, ranging from 1 to 5 years, before they attain maturity. Most accipitrids have clear-cut plumages in their immature degree, which presumably serves as a ocular discriminative stimulus to others of their species and may allow them to avoid territorial fights. shortly after attaining mature plumages, pairs form, with a male typically displaying, much in flight but sometimes vocally, to win over a female. many accipitrids breed with the same mate for respective years or for life, although this is not the case for all species and, if a mate dies, the widowed shuttlecock will typically try to find another teammate the following engender temper. [ 42 ]
See besides [edit ]
References [edit ]
- Accipitridae videos on the Internet Bird Collection
I am broadly interested in how human activities influence the ability of wildlife to persist in the modified environments that we create.
Specifically, my research investigates how the configuration and composition of landscapes influence the movement and population dynamics of forest birds. Both natural and human-derived fragmenting of habitat can influence where birds settle, how they access the resources they need to survive and reproduce, and these factors in turn affect population demographics. Most recently, I have been studying the ability of individuals to move through and utilize forested areas which have been modified through timber harvest as they seek out resources for the breeding and postfledging phases. As well I am working in collaboration with Parks Canada scientists to examine in the influence of high density moose populations on forest bird communities in Gros Morne National Park. Many of my projects are conducted in collaboration or consultation with representatives of industry and government agencies, seeking to improve the management and sustainability of natural resource extraction.